THE RECORD
What changed
Horse bones and pottery residues at Botai show intensive use. Ancient DNA places the dominant ancestry of modern domestic horses in the lower Don–Volga region after about 2700 BCE, spreading rapidly from around 2200 BCE.
EVIDENCE
What remains
Faunal remains, lipid residues, debated tooth wear and 273 ancient horse genomes distinguish different management lineages and dispersals.
WHY IT MATTERS
Why it matters
Horse-based mobility transformed exchange, warfare and pastoral range, alongside the histories of wheels, chariots and controlled breeding.
OPEN QUESTION
Where interpretation begins
Bit-wear and riding at Botai remain disputed. The first management of horses must be distinguished from the origin of modern domestic lineages.